VULVOVAGINITIS
Other Names : Vaginitis; Vaginal inflammation; Inflammation of the vaginal.
Vulvovaginitis (pronounced:vul-vo-vah-juh-ni-tus) is an inflammation of the vagina. It can that can result in discharge, itching and pain, and is often associated with an irritation or infection of the vulva. It is usually due to infection.
In the pathophysiology of vagina; A normal vaginal discharge consists of 1-4 mL of fluid that is white or transparent, thick, and odorless. This physiologic discharge is formed by sloughing epithelial cells, normal bacteria, and vaginal transudate. The discharge may be noticeable during pregnancy, oral contraceptive pill use, or at mid menstrual cycle, close to the time of ovulation.
The pH of vagina is maintained by lactobacillus, which produces hydrogen peroxide and lactic acid; diphtheroids; and Staphylococcus epidermidis. Lactobacillus is found in 62-88% of women. The normal pH of vaginal secretions is 4.0-4.5. Vaginal pH may increase with age, phase of menstrual cycle, sexual activity, contraception choice, pregnancy, presence of necrotic tissue or foreign bodies, and use of hygienic products or antibiotics.
The normal vaginal epithelium cornifies (develops into a thickened layer of epithelial cells) under the influence of estrogen, protecting women against infection.
Traditionally, the 3 classic entities of vaginitis include bacterial vaginosis, Trichomonas infection, and candidiasis. Other microorganisms may cause vulvovaginitis, or it may be caused by allergic reaction, irritation, injury, low estrogen levels, and certain diseases. Risk factors for bacterial vaginosis include using an intrauterine device (IUD), being of a non-white race, prior pregnancy, first sexual activity at an early age, having multiple sexual partners, and having a history of sexually transmitted diseases. Persons at an increased risk for candida vulvovaginitis include those who have had previous candida infections, frequent sexual intercourse, use birth control pills, have AIDS, are pregnant, are taking antibiotics or corticosteroids, are diabetic, use douches, use perfumed feminine hygiene sprays, wear tight clothing, or use vaginal sponges or an IUD.
Symptoms
• Irritation and itching of the genital area
• Inflammation (irritation, redness, and swelling) of the labia majora, labia minora, or perineal area
• Vaginal discharge
• Foul vaginal odor
• Discomfort or burning when urinating
Causes
Premenarchal; Nonspecific - No defined etiologic agent or poor perineal hygiene, Chemical irritants (eg, bubble baths, lotions),Vaginal foreign bodies, Pinworm infection, GABHS infection, Skin conditions - Eczema, psoriasis, seborrhea, Etiologies usually associated with women of childbearing age - Bacterial vaginosis, Trichomonas species, Candida species, and gonorrhea (Many of these are associated with sexual abuse).
Childbearing age; Sexual contact especially with multiple sexual contacts, No method of birth control, History of STD, Bacterial or fungal infections such as G vaginalis (bacterial vaginosis), Candida species, and Trichomonas species, Chemical irritants, Recent broad-spectrum antibiotics such as tetracycline, ampicillin, and cephalosporins, Pregnancy.
Postmenarchal - Atrophic vaginitis (most common cause of vulvovaginitis in postmenarchal women).
Diagnosis
To diagnose vulvovaginitis, the physician will examine the vagina (using a speculum to keep the vagina open) and take a sample of the vaginal discharge for tests and microscopic analysis. Diagnosis may be difficult because there are many different causes of vulvovaginitis.
Diagnosis is made with microscopy (mostly by vaginal wet mount) and culture of the discharge after a careful history and physical examination have been completed. The color, consistency, acidity, and other characteristics of the discharge may be predictive of the causative agent.
Drugs Used to Treat This Disorder
The cause of the infection determines the appropriate treatment. It may include oral or topical antibiotics and/or antifungal creams, antibacterial creams, or similar medications.
Some drugs for example that can used to treat this disorder :
Butoconazole
2% cream; 5 g intravaginally for 3 days,
2% cream; 5 g (Butaconazole1-sustained release), single intravaginal application
Clotrimazole
1% cream; 5 g intravaginally for 7–14 days,
100 mg vaginal tablet for 7 days,
100 mg vaginal tablet; 2 tablets for 3 days)
Miconazole
2% cream 5 g intravaginally for 7 days,
100 mg vaginal suppository; one suppository for 7 days,
200 mg vaginal suppository; one suppository for 3 days,
1,200 mg vaginal suppository, one suppository for 1 day
Nystatin
100,000-unit vaginal tablet, 1 tablet for 14 days
Tioconazole
6.5% ointment 5 g intravaginally in a single application
0.4% cream 5 g intravaginally for 7 days
0.8% cream 5 g intravaginally for 3 days
80 mg vaginal suppository, 1 suppository for 3 days
Fluconazole
150 mg oral tablet, 1 tablet in single dose
Antihistamine drug; if an allergic reaction is involved.
A topical estrogen cream; for women who have irritation and inflammation caused by low levels of estrogen (postmenopausal).
Note : See your physician ! Along with medical treatment, you must be encouraged to avoid etiological agents and to make necessary changes in your habits.
Andi Surya Amal
Independent Author, Pharmacist, to study Medical Pharmacology and formulation
Friday, December 25, 2009
Saturday, December 19, 2009
THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM; DISEASES AND DISORDERS
The Female Reproductive System; Diseases and Disorders
Women are commonly dealing with many different diseases and disorders that pertain to the reproductive system. Here are some of the most common:
Vulvovaginitis
Vulvovaginitis (pronounced:vul-vo-vah-juh-ni-tus) is an inflammation of the vulva and vagina. It may be caused by irritating substances such as laundry soap, bubble baths or poor hygiene such as wiping from back to front. Symptoms include redness and itching in these areas and sometimes vaginal discharge. It can also be caused by an overgrowth of candida, a fungus normally present in the vagina.
Nonmenstrual Vaginal Bleeding
Nonmenstrual vaginal bleeding is most commonly due to the presence of a foreign body in the vagina. It may also be due to urethral prolapse, a condition in which the mucous membranes of the urethra protrude into the vagina and forms a tiny, donut shaped mass of tissue that bleeds easily. It can also be due to a straddle injury or vaginal trauma from sexual abuse.
Ectopic Pregnancy
Ectopic Pregnancy occurs when a fertilized egg or zygote doesn't travel into the uterus, but instead grows rapidly in the fallopian tube. Women with this condition can develop severe abdominal pain and should see a doctor because surgery may be necessary.
Ovarian Tumors
Ovarian tumors, although rare, can occur. Women with ovarian tumors may have abdominal pain and masses that can be felt in the abdomen. Surgery may be needed to remove the tumor.
Ovarian Cysts
Ovarian cysts are noncancerous sacs filled with fluid or semi-solid material. Although they are common and generally harmless, they can become a problem if they grow very large. Large cysts may push on surrounding organs, causing abdominal pain. In most cases, cysts will pass or disappear on their own and treatment is not necessary. If the cysts are painful and occur frequently, a doctor may prescribe birth control pills to alter their growth and occurrences. Surgery is also an option if they need to be removed.
Polycystic Ovary Syndrome
Polycystic ovary syndrome is a hormone disorder in which too many hormones are produced by the ovaries. This condition causes the ovaries to become enlarged and develop many fluid filled sacs or cysts. It often first appears during the teen years. Depending on the type and the severity of the condition, it may be treated with drugs to regulate hormone balance and menstruation.
Trichomonas Vaginalis
Trichomonas vaginalis inflammatory condition of the vagina usually a bacterial infection also called vaginosis.
Dysmenorrhea
Dysmenorrhea is painful periods.
Menorrhagia
Menorrhagia is when a woman has very heavy periods with excess bleeding.
Oligomenorrhea
Oligomenorrhea is when a woman misses or has infrequent periods, even though she has been menstruating for a while and is not pregnant.
Amenorrhea
Amenorrhea is when a girl has not started her period by the time she is 16 years old or 3 years after puberty has started, has not developed signs of puberty by 14, or has had normal periods but has stopped menstruating for some reasons other than pregnancy.
Toxic shock Syndrome
Toxic shock syndrome is caused by toxins released into the body during a type of bacterial infection that is more likely to develop if a tampon is left in too long. It can produce high fever, diarrhea, vomiting, and shock.
Candidasis
Candidasis symptoms of yeast infections include itching, burning and discharge. Yeast organisms are always present in all people, but are usually prevented from "overgrowth" (uncontrolled multiplication resulting in symptoms) by naturally occurring microorganisms.
At least three quarters of all women will experience candidiasis at some point in their lives. The Candida albicans organism is found in the vaginas of almost all women and normally causes no problems. However, when it gets out of balance with the other "normal flora," such as lactobacilli (which can also be harmed by using douches), an overgrowth of yeast can result in noticeable symptoms. Pregnancy, the use of oral contraceptives, engaging in vaginal sex after anal sex in an unhygienic manner, and using lubricants containing glycerin have been found to be causally related to yeast infections. Diabetes mellitus and the use of antibiotics are also linked to an increased incidence of yeast infections. Candidiasis can be sexually transmitted between partners. Diet has been found to be the cause in some animals. Hormone Replacement Therapy and Infertility Treatment may be factors.
There are also cancer's of the female reproductive system, such as:
1. Cervical cancer
2. Ovarian cancer
3. Uterine cancer
4. Breast cancer
Endometriosis
Endometriosis is the most common gynecological diseases, affecting more than 5.5 million women in North America alone! The two most common symptoms are pain and infertility. In this disease a specialized type of tissue that normally lines the inside of the uterus,(the endometrium) becomes implanted outside the uterus, most commonly on the fallopian tubes, ovaries, or the tissue lining the pelvis. During the menstrual cycle, hormones signal the lining of the uterus to thicken to prepare for possible pregnancy. If a pregnancy doesn't occur, the hormone levels decrease, causing the thickened lining to shed.
When endometrial tissue is located in other parts it continues to act in it's normal way: It thickens, breaks down and bleeds each month as the hormone levels rise and fall. However, because there's nowhere for the blood from this mislocated tissue to exit the body, it becomes trapped and surrounding tissue becomes irritated. Trapped blood may lead to growth of cysts. Cysts in turn may form scar tissue and adhesions. This causes pain in the area of the misplaced tissue, usually the pelvis. Endometriosis can cause fertility problems. In fact, scars and adhesions on the ovaries or fallopian tubes can prevent pregnancy. Endometriosis can be mild, moderate or severe and tends to get worse over time without treatment. The most common symptoms are:
1. Painful periods Pelvic pain and severe cramping, intense back pain and abdominal pain.
2. Pain at other times Women may experience pelvic pain during ovulation, sharp deep pain in pelvis during intercourse, or pain during bowel movements or urination.
3. Excessive bleeding Heavy periods or bleeding between periods.
4. Infertility Approximately 30-40% of women
The cause of endometriosis remains mysterious. Scientists are studying the roles that hormones and the immune system play in this condition. One theory holds that menstrual blood containing endometrial cells flows back through the fallopian tubes, takes root and grows. Another hypothesis proposes that the bloodstream carries endometrial cells to other sites in the body. Still another theory speculates that a predisposition toward endometriosis may be carried in the genes of certain families.
Other researchers believe that certain cells present within the abdomen in some women retain their ability to specialize into endometrial cells. These same cells were responsible for the growth of the woman's reproductive organs when she was an embryo. It is believed that genetic or environmental influences in later life allow these cells to give rise to endometrial tissue outside the uterus.
Adapted from : Wikibooks ; December 19, 2009
Women are commonly dealing with many different diseases and disorders that pertain to the reproductive system. Here are some of the most common:
Vulvovaginitis
Vulvovaginitis (pronounced:vul-vo-vah-juh-ni-tus) is an inflammation of the vulva and vagina. It may be caused by irritating substances such as laundry soap, bubble baths or poor hygiene such as wiping from back to front. Symptoms include redness and itching in these areas and sometimes vaginal discharge. It can also be caused by an overgrowth of candida, a fungus normally present in the vagina.
Nonmenstrual Vaginal Bleeding
Nonmenstrual vaginal bleeding is most commonly due to the presence of a foreign body in the vagina. It may also be due to urethral prolapse, a condition in which the mucous membranes of the urethra protrude into the vagina and forms a tiny, donut shaped mass of tissue that bleeds easily. It can also be due to a straddle injury or vaginal trauma from sexual abuse.
Ectopic Pregnancy
Ectopic Pregnancy occurs when a fertilized egg or zygote doesn't travel into the uterus, but instead grows rapidly in the fallopian tube. Women with this condition can develop severe abdominal pain and should see a doctor because surgery may be necessary.
Ovarian Tumors
Ovarian tumors, although rare, can occur. Women with ovarian tumors may have abdominal pain and masses that can be felt in the abdomen. Surgery may be needed to remove the tumor.
Ovarian Cysts
Ovarian cysts are noncancerous sacs filled with fluid or semi-solid material. Although they are common and generally harmless, they can become a problem if they grow very large. Large cysts may push on surrounding organs, causing abdominal pain. In most cases, cysts will pass or disappear on their own and treatment is not necessary. If the cysts are painful and occur frequently, a doctor may prescribe birth control pills to alter their growth and occurrences. Surgery is also an option if they need to be removed.
Polycystic Ovary Syndrome
Polycystic ovary syndrome is a hormone disorder in which too many hormones are produced by the ovaries. This condition causes the ovaries to become enlarged and develop many fluid filled sacs or cysts. It often first appears during the teen years. Depending on the type and the severity of the condition, it may be treated with drugs to regulate hormone balance and menstruation.
Trichomonas Vaginalis
Trichomonas vaginalis inflammatory condition of the vagina usually a bacterial infection also called vaginosis.
Dysmenorrhea
Dysmenorrhea is painful periods.
Menorrhagia
Menorrhagia is when a woman has very heavy periods with excess bleeding.
Oligomenorrhea
Oligomenorrhea is when a woman misses or has infrequent periods, even though she has been menstruating for a while and is not pregnant.
Amenorrhea
Amenorrhea is when a girl has not started her period by the time she is 16 years old or 3 years after puberty has started, has not developed signs of puberty by 14, or has had normal periods but has stopped menstruating for some reasons other than pregnancy.
Toxic shock Syndrome
Toxic shock syndrome is caused by toxins released into the body during a type of bacterial infection that is more likely to develop if a tampon is left in too long. It can produce high fever, diarrhea, vomiting, and shock.
Candidasis
Candidasis symptoms of yeast infections include itching, burning and discharge. Yeast organisms are always present in all people, but are usually prevented from "overgrowth" (uncontrolled multiplication resulting in symptoms) by naturally occurring microorganisms.
At least three quarters of all women will experience candidiasis at some point in their lives. The Candida albicans organism is found in the vaginas of almost all women and normally causes no problems. However, when it gets out of balance with the other "normal flora," such as lactobacilli (which can also be harmed by using douches), an overgrowth of yeast can result in noticeable symptoms. Pregnancy, the use of oral contraceptives, engaging in vaginal sex after anal sex in an unhygienic manner, and using lubricants containing glycerin have been found to be causally related to yeast infections. Diabetes mellitus and the use of antibiotics are also linked to an increased incidence of yeast infections. Candidiasis can be sexually transmitted between partners. Diet has been found to be the cause in some animals. Hormone Replacement Therapy and Infertility Treatment may be factors.
There are also cancer's of the female reproductive system, such as:
1. Cervical cancer
2. Ovarian cancer
3. Uterine cancer
4. Breast cancer
Endometriosis
Endometriosis is the most common gynecological diseases, affecting more than 5.5 million women in North America alone! The two most common symptoms are pain and infertility. In this disease a specialized type of tissue that normally lines the inside of the uterus,(the endometrium) becomes implanted outside the uterus, most commonly on the fallopian tubes, ovaries, or the tissue lining the pelvis. During the menstrual cycle, hormones signal the lining of the uterus to thicken to prepare for possible pregnancy. If a pregnancy doesn't occur, the hormone levels decrease, causing the thickened lining to shed.
When endometrial tissue is located in other parts it continues to act in it's normal way: It thickens, breaks down and bleeds each month as the hormone levels rise and fall. However, because there's nowhere for the blood from this mislocated tissue to exit the body, it becomes trapped and surrounding tissue becomes irritated. Trapped blood may lead to growth of cysts. Cysts in turn may form scar tissue and adhesions. This causes pain in the area of the misplaced tissue, usually the pelvis. Endometriosis can cause fertility problems. In fact, scars and adhesions on the ovaries or fallopian tubes can prevent pregnancy. Endometriosis can be mild, moderate or severe and tends to get worse over time without treatment. The most common symptoms are:
1. Painful periods Pelvic pain and severe cramping, intense back pain and abdominal pain.
2. Pain at other times Women may experience pelvic pain during ovulation, sharp deep pain in pelvis during intercourse, or pain during bowel movements or urination.
3. Excessive bleeding Heavy periods or bleeding between periods.
4. Infertility Approximately 30-40% of women
The cause of endometriosis remains mysterious. Scientists are studying the roles that hormones and the immune system play in this condition. One theory holds that menstrual blood containing endometrial cells flows back through the fallopian tubes, takes root and grows. Another hypothesis proposes that the bloodstream carries endometrial cells to other sites in the body. Still another theory speculates that a predisposition toward endometriosis may be carried in the genes of certain families.
Other researchers believe that certain cells present within the abdomen in some women retain their ability to specialize into endometrial cells. These same cells were responsible for the growth of the woman's reproductive organs when she was an embryo. It is believed that genetic or environmental influences in later life allow these cells to give rise to endometrial tissue outside the uterus.
Adapted from : Wikibooks ; December 19, 2009
PREGNANCY WITH ASSISTED REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGY
Pregnancy With Assisted Reproductive Technology
Assisted reproductive technology (ART) is the use of reproductive technology to treat infertility. This is today the only application of reproductive technology to increase reproduction that is used routinely.
Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART) procedures are used to overcome infertility. It includes infertility treatments in which eggs and sperm are handled in the laboratory to establish a pregnancy. Women who undergo those procedures are more likely to deliver multiple-birth infants than those who conceive naturally. This report presents the most recent national data and state-specific results. [MMWR 2009;58(SS05):1–25]
Some of the reproductive technologies available to infertile women include :
1. In vitro fertilisation (IVF)
In vitro fertilisation (IVF) is conception within a test tube (or similar). The woman undergoes ovulation induction and a number of eggs are removed. This is done through the vagina under ultrasound control. The collected eggs are then mixed with previously collected sperm from the woman's partner and placed in a special incubator. The fertilised eggs are then implanted into the woman's uterus via a thin tube inserted through the cervix.
Since 1983, when the first infant was conceived from in vitro fertilization (IVF) in the United States, the use of IVF and related procedures (assisted reproductive technology) has increased substantially. [MMWR 2002;51(05):97–101]
Variations on IVF include:
2. Surgery
Usually, an egg released during ovulation is ushered down the fallopian tube. If it meets with a sperm on its journey, conception may occur. Female infertility can be caused by obstructions within reproductive organs. Some of the problems that can be addressed by surgery include:
3. Ovulation induction
Irregular or absent periods may indicate that ovulation is irregular or absent too. However, even women with regular periods may skip ovulation every now and then. Ovulation can be induced with a range of drugs in a tablet or injection form. The drug schedule includes synthesised versions of gonadotrophins, the hormones released by the pituitary gland in the brain that prompt the ovaries to release an egg every menstrual cycle. However, the drugs tend to trigger the release of a number of eggs per cycle, which means the risk of having a multiple pregnancy is about 20 per cent. Sometimes, the response to synthesised gonadotrophins may be excessive, leading to a condition known as ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome. The symptoms include oedema (fluid retention), abdominal pain and bloating. Regular blood tests are used to help fine-tune the dosage and minimise the risk of ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome from occurring.
4. Other assisted reproductive technology:
a. Assisted hatching
b. Fertility preservation
c. Freezing (cryopreservation) of sperm, eggs, & reproductive tissue
d. Frozen embryo transfer (FET)
Pregnancy isn't always possible
Despite the sophistication of assisted reproductive technologies, pregnancy doesn't always happen. It depends on a range of factors, including the reasons for the woman's infertility, her age and the type of technology used.
Potential health risks
Some of the problems associated with the use of assisted reproductive technologies include:
1. Ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome
2. Associated risks of multiple pregnancies
3. Increased risk of premature labour and low birth weight
4. Increased risk of caesarean delivery.
Ethics
Many issues of reproductive technology have given rise to bioethical issues, since technology often alters the assumptions that lie behind existing systems of sexual and reproductive morality. Also, ethical issues of human enhancement arise when reproductive technology has evolved to be a potential technology for not only reproductively inhibited people but even for otherwise reproductively healthy people.
Assisted reproductive technology (ART) is the use of reproductive technology to treat infertility. This is today the only application of reproductive technology to increase reproduction that is used routinely. Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART) procedures are used to overcome infertility. It includes infertility treatments in which eggs and sperm are handled in the laboratory to establish a pregnancy. Women who undergo those procedures are more likely to deliver multiple-birth infants than those who conceive naturally. This report presents the most recent national data and state-specific results. [MMWR 2009;58(SS05):1–25]
Some of the reproductive technologies available to infertile women include :
1. In vitro fertilisation (IVF)
In vitro fertilisation (IVF) is conception within a test tube (or similar). The woman undergoes ovulation induction and a number of eggs are removed. This is done through the vagina under ultrasound control. The collected eggs are then mixed with previously collected sperm from the woman's partner and placed in a special incubator. The fertilised eggs are then implanted into the woman's uterus via a thin tube inserted through the cervix.
Since 1983, when the first infant was conceived from in vitro fertilization (IVF) in the United States, the use of IVF and related procedures (assisted reproductive technology) has increased substantially. [MMWR 2002;51(05):97–101]
Variations on IVF include:
- Use of donor eggs and/or sperm in IVF. This happens when a couple's eggs and/or sperm are unusable, or to avoid passing on a genetic disease.
- Intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI)in which a single sperm is injected directly into an egg; the fertilized egg is then placed in the woman's uterus as in IVF.
- Zygote intrafallopian transfer (ZIFT) in which eggs are removed from the woman, fertilized and then placed in the woman's fallopian tubes rather than the uterus.
- Gamete intrafallopian transfer (GIFT) in which eggs are removed from the woman, and placed in one of the fallopian tubes, along with the man's sperm. This allows fertilization to take place inside the woman's body.
2. Surgery
Usually, an egg released during ovulation is ushered down the fallopian tube. If it meets with a sperm on its journey, conception may occur. Female infertility can be caused by obstructions within reproductive organs. Some of the problems that can be addressed by surgery include:
- Fibroids - non-malignant tumours growing inside the uterus.
- Polyps - overgrowths of the uterine lining (endometrium), which can be caused by fibroids.
- Endometriosis - the growth of endometrial tissue outside of the uterus. This misplaced tissue can block the fallopian tubes.
- Salpingitis - the fallopian tube becomes inflamed and scarred by bacterial infection.
3. Ovulation induction
Irregular or absent periods may indicate that ovulation is irregular or absent too. However, even women with regular periods may skip ovulation every now and then. Ovulation can be induced with a range of drugs in a tablet or injection form. The drug schedule includes synthesised versions of gonadotrophins, the hormones released by the pituitary gland in the brain that prompt the ovaries to release an egg every menstrual cycle. However, the drugs tend to trigger the release of a number of eggs per cycle, which means the risk of having a multiple pregnancy is about 20 per cent. Sometimes, the response to synthesised gonadotrophins may be excessive, leading to a condition known as ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome. The symptoms include oedema (fluid retention), abdominal pain and bloating. Regular blood tests are used to help fine-tune the dosage and minimise the risk of ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome from occurring.
4. Other assisted reproductive technology:
a. Assisted hatching
b. Fertility preservation
c. Freezing (cryopreservation) of sperm, eggs, & reproductive tissue
d. Frozen embryo transfer (FET)
Pregnancy isn't always possible
Despite the sophistication of assisted reproductive technologies, pregnancy doesn't always happen. It depends on a range of factors, including the reasons for the woman's infertility, her age and the type of technology used.
Potential health risks
Some of the problems associated with the use of assisted reproductive technologies include:
1. Ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome
2. Associated risks of multiple pregnancies
3. Increased risk of premature labour and low birth weight
4. Increased risk of caesarean delivery.
Ethics
Many issues of reproductive technology have given rise to bioethical issues, since technology often alters the assumptions that lie behind existing systems of sexual and reproductive morality. Also, ethical issues of human enhancement arise when reproductive technology has evolved to be a potential technology for not only reproductively inhibited people but even for otherwise reproductively healthy people.
Thursday, December 17, 2009
THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS
THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS
(Click for to see Images of “The Female Reproductive Anatomy”, before you read the text below)
The article is a simple review of the female reproductive organ. There are two parts on female sexual anatomy; internal and external organs. The female sexual anatomy and its composite parts allow women to become pregnant, bear children and other biological functions.
A. Internal Organs
Key organs for female reproduction are protectively located deep within the body. These include:
Ovaries
Location : Pelvic region on either side of the uterus.
Function : Provides an environment for maturation of oocyte. Synthesizes and secretes sex hormones (estrogen and progesterone).
Description : A woman normally has a pair of ovaries that resemble almonds in size and shape. They are home to the female sex cells, called eggs, and they also produce estrogen, the female sex hormone. Women’s ovaries already contain several hundred thousand undeveloped eggs at birth, but the eggs are not called into action until puberty. Roughly once a month, starting at puberty and lasting until menopause, the ovaries release an egg into the fallopian tubes; this is called ovulation. When fertilization does not occur, the egg leaves the body as part of the menstrual cycle.
Fallopian tubes
Location : Extending upper part of the uterus on either side.
Function : Egg transportation from ovary to uterus (fertilization usually takes place here).
Description: These are narrow tubes that are attached to the upper part of the uterus and serve as tunnels for the ova (egg cells) to travel from the ovaries to the uterus. Conception, the fertilization of an egg by a sperm, normally occurs in the fallopian tubes. The fertilized egg then moves to the uterus, where it implants into the lining of the uterine wall.
Uterus
Location : Center of pelvic cavity.
Function : To house and nourish developing human.
Description : The uterus is located in the pelvis of a woman’s body and is made up of smooth muscle tissue. Commonly referred to as the womb, the uterus is hollow and holds the fetus during pregnancy. Each month, the uterus develops a lining that is rich in nutrients. The reproductive purpose of this lining is to provide nourishment for a developing fetus. Since eggs aren’t usually fertilized, the lining usually leaves the body as menstrual blood during a woman’s monthly period.
Cervix
Location : The lower narrower portion of the uterus.
Function : During childbirth, contractions of the uterus will dilate the cervix up to 10 cm in diameter to allow the child to pass through. During orgasm, the cervix convulses and the external os dilates.
Description :The lower part of the uterus, which connects to the vagina, is known as the cervix. Often called the neck or entrance to the womb, the cervix lets menstrual blood out and semen into the uterus. The cervix remains closed during pregnancy but can expand dramatically during childbirth.
Vagina
Location : Canal about 10-8 cm long going from the cervix to the outside of the body.
Function : Receives penis during mating. Pathway through a womans body for the baby to take during childbirth. Provides the route for the menstrual blood (menses) from the uterus, to leave the body. May hold forms of birth control, such as an IUD, diaphragm, neva ring, or female condom.
Description : The vagina has both internal and external parts and connects the uterus to the outside of the body. Made up of muscle and skin, the vagina is a long hollow tube that is sometimes called the “birth canal” because, if you are pregnant, the vagina is the pathway the baby will take when it’s ready to be born. The vagina also allows menstrual blood to leave a woman's body during reproduction and is where the penis deposits semen during sexual intercourse.
B. External Parts
The entrance to the vagina is surrounded by external parts that generally serve to protect the internal organs; this area is called the vulva. The vulva consists of the following:
Labia majora
Location : Outer skin folds that surround the entrance to the vagina.
Function : Lubrication during mating
Description : The labia majora enclose and protect the other external reproductive organs. Literally translated as "large lips," the labia majora are relatively large and fleshy, and are comparable to the scrotum in males. The labia majora contain sweat and oil-secreting glands. After puberty, the labia majora are covered with hair.
Labia minora
Location : Inner skin folds that surround the entrance to the vagina.
Function: Lubrication during mating
Description : Literally translated as "small lips," the labia minora can be very small or up to 2 inches wide. They lie just inside the labia majora, and surround the openings to the vagina (the canal that joins the lower part of the uterus to the outside of the body) and urethra (the tube that carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the body).
Clitoris
Location : Small erectile organ directly in front of the vestibule.
Function : Sexual excitation, engorged with blood.
Description : The clitoris is a sensitive organ located above the vaginal opening. The clitoris does not directly affect reproduction, but it is an important part of the female sexual anatomy; many women need clitoral stimulation to orgasm.
Mons veneris
Location : Mound of skin and underlying fatty tissue, central in lower pelvic region.
Description : The mons veneris, Latin for "mound of Venus" (Roman Goddess of love) is the soft mound at the front of the vulva (fatty tissue covering the pubic bone). It is also referred to as the mons pubis. The mons veneris is sexually sensitive in some women and protects the pubic bone and vulva from the impact of sexual intercourse. After puberty it is covered with pubic hair, usually in a triangular shape. Heredity can play a role in the amount of pubic hair an individual grows.
Perineum
Location : Short stretch of skin starting at the bottom of the vulva and extending to the anus.
Description : The perineum is the short stretch of skin starting at the bottom of the vulva and extending to the anus. It is a diamond shaped area between the symphysis pubis and the coccyx. This area forms the floor of the pelvis and contains the external sex organs and the anal opening. It can be further divided into the urogenital triangle in front and the anal triangle in back.The perineum in some women may tear during the birth of an infant and this is apparently natural. Some physicians however, may cut the perineum preemptively on the grounds that the "tearing" may be more harmful than a precise cut by a scalpel. If a physician decides the cut is necessary, they will perform it. The cut is called an episiotomy.
This knowing describes the importance of good health of the female reproductive system: the organs involved in the process of reproduction, hormones that regulate a woman's body, the menstrual cycle, ovulation and pregnancy, the female's role in genetic division, birth control, sexually transmitted diseases and other diseases and disorders.
(Click for to see Images of “The Female Reproductive Anatomy”, before you read the text below)
The article is a simple review of the female reproductive organ. There are two parts on female sexual anatomy; internal and external organs. The female sexual anatomy and its composite parts allow women to become pregnant, bear children and other biological functions.
A. Internal Organs
Key organs for female reproduction are protectively located deep within the body. These include:
Ovaries
Location : Pelvic region on either side of the uterus.
Function : Provides an environment for maturation of oocyte. Synthesizes and secretes sex hormones (estrogen and progesterone).
Description : A woman normally has a pair of ovaries that resemble almonds in size and shape. They are home to the female sex cells, called eggs, and they also produce estrogen, the female sex hormone. Women’s ovaries already contain several hundred thousand undeveloped eggs at birth, but the eggs are not called into action until puberty. Roughly once a month, starting at puberty and lasting until menopause, the ovaries release an egg into the fallopian tubes; this is called ovulation. When fertilization does not occur, the egg leaves the body as part of the menstrual cycle.
Fallopian tubes
Location : Extending upper part of the uterus on either side.
Function : Egg transportation from ovary to uterus (fertilization usually takes place here).
Description: These are narrow tubes that are attached to the upper part of the uterus and serve as tunnels for the ova (egg cells) to travel from the ovaries to the uterus. Conception, the fertilization of an egg by a sperm, normally occurs in the fallopian tubes. The fertilized egg then moves to the uterus, where it implants into the lining of the uterine wall.
Uterus
Location : Center of pelvic cavity.
Function : To house and nourish developing human.
Description : The uterus is located in the pelvis of a woman’s body and is made up of smooth muscle tissue. Commonly referred to as the womb, the uterus is hollow and holds the fetus during pregnancy. Each month, the uterus develops a lining that is rich in nutrients. The reproductive purpose of this lining is to provide nourishment for a developing fetus. Since eggs aren’t usually fertilized, the lining usually leaves the body as menstrual blood during a woman’s monthly period.
Cervix
Location : The lower narrower portion of the uterus.
Function : During childbirth, contractions of the uterus will dilate the cervix up to 10 cm in diameter to allow the child to pass through. During orgasm, the cervix convulses and the external os dilates.
Description :The lower part of the uterus, which connects to the vagina, is known as the cervix. Often called the neck or entrance to the womb, the cervix lets menstrual blood out and semen into the uterus. The cervix remains closed during pregnancy but can expand dramatically during childbirth.
Vagina
Location : Canal about 10-8 cm long going from the cervix to the outside of the body.
Function : Receives penis during mating. Pathway through a womans body for the baby to take during childbirth. Provides the route for the menstrual blood (menses) from the uterus, to leave the body. May hold forms of birth control, such as an IUD, diaphragm, neva ring, or female condom.
Description : The vagina has both internal and external parts and connects the uterus to the outside of the body. Made up of muscle and skin, the vagina is a long hollow tube that is sometimes called the “birth canal” because, if you are pregnant, the vagina is the pathway the baby will take when it’s ready to be born. The vagina also allows menstrual blood to leave a woman's body during reproduction and is where the penis deposits semen during sexual intercourse.
B. External Parts
The entrance to the vagina is surrounded by external parts that generally serve to protect the internal organs; this area is called the vulva. The vulva consists of the following:
Labia majora
Location : Outer skin folds that surround the entrance to the vagina.
Function : Lubrication during mating
Description : The labia majora enclose and protect the other external reproductive organs. Literally translated as "large lips," the labia majora are relatively large and fleshy, and are comparable to the scrotum in males. The labia majora contain sweat and oil-secreting glands. After puberty, the labia majora are covered with hair.
Labia minora
Location : Inner skin folds that surround the entrance to the vagina.
Function: Lubrication during mating
Description : Literally translated as "small lips," the labia minora can be very small or up to 2 inches wide. They lie just inside the labia majora, and surround the openings to the vagina (the canal that joins the lower part of the uterus to the outside of the body) and urethra (the tube that carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the body).
Clitoris
Location : Small erectile organ directly in front of the vestibule.
Function : Sexual excitation, engorged with blood.
Description : The clitoris is a sensitive organ located above the vaginal opening. The clitoris does not directly affect reproduction, but it is an important part of the female sexual anatomy; many women need clitoral stimulation to orgasm.
Mons veneris
Location : Mound of skin and underlying fatty tissue, central in lower pelvic region.
Description : The mons veneris, Latin for "mound of Venus" (Roman Goddess of love) is the soft mound at the front of the vulva (fatty tissue covering the pubic bone). It is also referred to as the mons pubis. The mons veneris is sexually sensitive in some women and protects the pubic bone and vulva from the impact of sexual intercourse. After puberty it is covered with pubic hair, usually in a triangular shape. Heredity can play a role in the amount of pubic hair an individual grows.
Perineum
Location : Short stretch of skin starting at the bottom of the vulva and extending to the anus.
Description : The perineum is the short stretch of skin starting at the bottom of the vulva and extending to the anus. It is a diamond shaped area between the symphysis pubis and the coccyx. This area forms the floor of the pelvis and contains the external sex organs and the anal opening. It can be further divided into the urogenital triangle in front and the anal triangle in back.The perineum in some women may tear during the birth of an infant and this is apparently natural. Some physicians however, may cut the perineum preemptively on the grounds that the "tearing" may be more harmful than a precise cut by a scalpel. If a physician decides the cut is necessary, they will perform it. The cut is called an episiotomy.
This knowing describes the importance of good health of the female reproductive system: the organs involved in the process of reproduction, hormones that regulate a woman's body, the menstrual cycle, ovulation and pregnancy, the female's role in genetic division, birth control, sexually transmitted diseases and other diseases and disorders.
Wednesday, December 16, 2009
THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE AND OVULATION PREDICTION
THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE AND OVULATION PREDICTION
Menstruation - having periods - is part of the female reproductive cycle that starts when girls become sexually mature at the time of puberty. During a menstrual period, a woman bleeds from her uterus (womb) via the vagina. This lasts anything from three to seven days. Each period commences approximately every 28 days if the woman does not become pregnant during a given cycle.
The menstrual cycle is regulated by hormones. Luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), which are produced by the pituitary gland, promote ovulation and stimulate the ovaries to produce estrogen and progesterone.
The menstrual cycle is divided into two parts: pre-ovulation (is called the follicular phase) and pos-ovulation (from ovulation to menstruation, is called the luteal phase). The ovarian cycle refers to the cyclical development and expelling of the egg from the ovary. Though the length and regularity of a menstrual cycle may differ, the average duration of a complete menstrual cycle is 28 days (though healthy cycles can run from 21-36 days). [See Image]
The reproductive cycle can be divided into an ovarian cycle and a uterine cycle is shown in table below.
Can you feel ovulation? [Dr Philip Owen, Dr Jeni Worden, 2005]
Ovulation usually takes place roughly 14 days after the first day of the start of a period; however, the exact timing can vary greatly from woman to woman. Some women know when they are ovulating because they can feel a slight pain in their lower abdomen. Other women may bleed slightly in the middle of their cycle.
Vaginal discharge also changes at ovulation. It increases in amount and becomes more watery due to hormonal changes. This is one of the ways that women who wish to practice natural family planning (NFP) using the mucus test can find out whether it is safe to have sex or not.
Women who do not experience such symptoms during ovulation can find out when they are ovulating by taking their temperature. This will rise by 0.5 degrees Celsius when ovulation occurs. To measure temperature effectively, it must be taken at the same time every morning before getting out of bed.
Temperature readings taken from different parts of the body such as the mouth, under the arm, in the ear or in the rectum will all give a slightly different measurement. For this reason, it is important to choose one location and stick to it. When checking for temperature, rises can occur for a variety of reasons and, therefore, should not be used as the only method of detecting ovulation.
Important facts to know about ovulation [Ollendorff A T, 2008] :
When are you the most fertile?
A woman's monthly cycle is measured from the first day of her menstrual period until the first day of her next period. On average, a woman's cycle normally is between 28-32 days, but some women may have much shorter cycles or much longer ones. Ovulation can be calculated by starting with the day the last menstrual period (LMP) starts or by calculating 12-16 days from the next expected period. Most women ovulate anywhere between Day 11 - Day 21 of their cycle, counting from the first day of the LMP. This is what many refer to as the "fertile time" of a woman's cycle, because sexual intercourse during this time increases the chance of pregnancy. Ovulation can occur at various times during a cycle, and may occur on a different day each month.
Menstruation - having periods - is part of the female reproductive cycle that starts when girls become sexually mature at the time of puberty. During a menstrual period, a woman bleeds from her uterus (womb) via the vagina. This lasts anything from three to seven days. Each period commences approximately every 28 days if the woman does not become pregnant during a given cycle.
The menstrual cycle is regulated by hormones. Luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), which are produced by the pituitary gland, promote ovulation and stimulate the ovaries to produce estrogen and progesterone.
The menstrual cycle is divided into two parts: pre-ovulation (is called the follicular phase) and pos-ovulation (from ovulation to menstruation, is called the luteal phase). The ovarian cycle refers to the cyclical development and expelling of the egg from the ovary. Though the length and regularity of a menstrual cycle may differ, the average duration of a complete menstrual cycle is 28 days (though healthy cycles can run from 21-36 days). [See Image]The reproductive cycle can be divided into an ovarian cycle and a uterine cycle is shown in table below.
Can you feel ovulation? [Dr Philip Owen, Dr Jeni Worden, 2005]
Ovulation usually takes place roughly 14 days after the first day of the start of a period; however, the exact timing can vary greatly from woman to woman. Some women know when they are ovulating because they can feel a slight pain in their lower abdomen. Other women may bleed slightly in the middle of their cycle.
Vaginal discharge also changes at ovulation. It increases in amount and becomes more watery due to hormonal changes. This is one of the ways that women who wish to practice natural family planning (NFP) using the mucus test can find out whether it is safe to have sex or not.
Women who do not experience such symptoms during ovulation can find out when they are ovulating by taking their temperature. This will rise by 0.5 degrees Celsius when ovulation occurs. To measure temperature effectively, it must be taken at the same time every morning before getting out of bed.
Temperature readings taken from different parts of the body such as the mouth, under the arm, in the ear or in the rectum will all give a slightly different measurement. For this reason, it is important to choose one location and stick to it. When checking for temperature, rises can occur for a variety of reasons and, therefore, should not be used as the only method of detecting ovulation.
Important facts to know about ovulation [Ollendorff A T, 2008] :
- An egg (ovum) lives 12-24 hours after leaving the ovary
- Normally only one egg is released each time of ovulation
- Ovulation can be affected by stress, illness or disruption of normal routines
- Some women may experience some light blood spotting during ovulation
- Implantation of a fertilized egg normally takes place 6-12 days after ovulation
- Each women is born with millions of immature eggs that are awaiting ovulation to begin
- A menstrual period can occur even if ovulation has not occurred
- Ovulation can occur even if a menstrual period has not occurred
- Some women can feel a bit of pain or aching, near the ovaries during ovulation. This is called "mittleschmerz"
- If an egg is not fertilized, it disintegrates and is absorbed into the uterine lining
- Sperm can live in a woman's body up to 5 days after intercourse, though more often 2 days.
- Pregnancy is most likely if intercourse occurs anywhere from 3 days before ovulation until 2-3 days after ovulation.
When are you the most fertile?
A woman's monthly cycle is measured from the first day of her menstrual period until the first day of her next period. On average, a woman's cycle normally is between 28-32 days, but some women may have much shorter cycles or much longer ones. Ovulation can be calculated by starting with the day the last menstrual period (LMP) starts or by calculating 12-16 days from the next expected period. Most women ovulate anywhere between Day 11 - Day 21 of their cycle, counting from the first day of the LMP. This is what many refer to as the "fertile time" of a woman's cycle, because sexual intercourse during this time increases the chance of pregnancy. Ovulation can occur at various times during a cycle, and may occur on a different day each month.
Thursday, December 10, 2009
THE BEGINNING OF PREGNANCY
THE BEGINNING OF PREGNANCY
You feel sick but happy. You're tired but excited about the future. Your body is changing and your moods are volatile. You are pregnant. Are you ready? Learn about what's happening to you and your baby at the Pregnancy Learning Center. From preparing to get pregnant and preventing pregnancy, to knowing what to expect during pregnancy through delivery, the Learning Center offers a wealth of multimedia information to help guide you through this special time [1].
Pregnancy (latin "graviditas") is the carrying of one or more offspring, known as a fetus or embryo, inside the uterus of a female. In a pregnancy, there can be multiple gestations, as in the case of twins or triplets. Human pregnancy is the most studied of all mammalian pregnancies.
One scientific term for the state of pregnancy is gravid, and a pregnant female is sometimes referred to as a gravida. Neither word is used in common speech. Similarly, the term "parity" (abbreviated as "para") is used for the number of previous successful live births. Medically, a woman who has never been pregnant is referred to as a "nulligravida", a woman who is (or has been only) pregnant for the first time as a "primigravida", and a woman in subsequent pregnancies as a multigravida or "multiparous". Hence, during a second pregnancy a woman would be described as "gravida 2, para 1" and upon live delivery as "gravida 2, para 2". An in-progress pregnancy, as well as abortions, miscarriages, or stillbirths account for parity values being less than the gravida number, whereas a multiple birth will increase the parity value. Women who have never carried a pregnancy achieving more than 20 weeks of gestation age are referred to as "nulliparous". The medical term for a woman who is pregnant for the first time is primigravida [2].
Pregnancy symptoms
If you're like everyone else you're trying to figure out what the signs of pregnancy or pregnancy symptoms are and how likely they are to mean that you are pregnant. You can ask other people, you can worry in silence, but the best thing is to read through the categories and add up the signs. The more you have the more likely you are to be pregnant [3]. Top ten signs you might be pregnant [4], see in table below.
The beginning of pregnancy may be detected in a number of different ways, either by a pregnant woman without medical testing, or by using medical tests with or without the assistance of a medical professional. Most pregnant women experience a number of symptoms, which can signify pregnancy.
A number of early medical signs are associated with pregnancy. These signs typically appear, if at all, within the first few weeks after conception. Although not all of these signs are universally present, nor are all of them diagnostic by themselves, taken together they make a presumptive diagnosis of pregnancy.
These signs include the presence of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) in the blood and urine, missed menstrual period, implantation bleeding that occurs at implantation of the embryo in the uterus during the third or fourth week after last menstrual period, increased basal body temperature sustained for over 2 weeks after ovulation, Chadwick's sign (darkening of the cervix, vagina, and vulva), Goodell's sign (softening of the vaginal portion of the cervix), Hegar's sign (softening of the uterus isthmus), and pigmentation of linea alba - Linea nigra, (darkening of the skin in a midline of the abdomen, caused by hyperpigmentation resulting from hormonal changes, usually appearing around the middle of pregnancy).
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